Chapter 5 - General Ethical Perspectives

Utilitarianism: Do the Greatest Good for the Greatest Number of People

• Formalized by 19th Century English philosophers, John Stuart Mill and Jeremy Bentham
• Based on the premise that ethical choices should be based on their consequences
• Utility can be based on what is best in a specific case (act utilitarianism) or on what is generally best in most contexts (rule utilitarianism).
• Example of a leader taking an utilitarianism approach: America’s War on Terrorism
• Extreme measures were taken because it was deemed to be beneficial for the largest group of people.
• Advantages
• Is easy to understand
• Is frequently used
• Forces us to examine outcomes of our decisions
• Disadvantages
• Is difficult to identify and evaluate consequences
• Tendency for people to make selfish decisions as opposed to the decision with the greatest good.
• May have unanticipated outcomes
• May result in decision makers reaching different conclusions

 

Kant’s Categorical Imperative: Do What’s Right No Matter What the Cost

• Immanuel Kant, 18th century German Philosopher
• Argued that people should do what is morally right no matter what the consequences
• Individuals should follow universal truths to guide our conscience
• Guilt indicates that a universal truth has been broken
• What is right for one is right for all
• Ask yourself “Would I want everyone else to make the decision I did?”
• If the answer is yes, the choice is ethical
• Advantages
• Promotes persistence and consistency
• Is highly motivational
• Demonstrates respect for others
• Disadvantages
• Exceptions exist to nearly every “universal” law
• Actors may have warped consciences
• Is demonstrated through unrealistic examples
• Is hard to apply, particularly under stress

Justice is Fairness: Guaranteeing Equal Rights and Opportunities Behind the Veil of Ignorance

• Proposed by Harvard Philosopher, John Rawls (1921 -2002)
• Tried to identify principles that would foster cooperation in a society made up of free and equal citizens who, at the same time, must deal with inequalities
• Follow these principles of justice and build them into our social institutions:
• Each person has an equal right to the same basic liberties that are compatible with similar liberties for all
• Social and economic inequalities are to satisfy two conditions: (A) They are to be attached to offices and positions open to all under conditions of fair equality of opportunity. (B) They are to provide the greatest benefit to the least advantaged members of society.
• Uses the “Veil of Ignorance” concept to validate his main principles
• If people had to form a government and were blind to their own status in the society, they would choose a government with:
• Equal Liberty – enable them to follow their interests
• Equal Opportunity – could succeed based on merit
• Difference Principle that decisions should benefit the disadvantaged  - could help them if they were disadvantaged
• Advantages
• Nurtures both individual freedom and the good of the community
• Highlights important democratic values and concern for the less fortunate
• Encourages leaders to treat followers fairly
• Provides a useful decision-making guide
• Disadvantages
• Principles can be applied only to democratic societies
• Groups disagree about the meaning of justice and fairness
• Lack of consensus about the most important rights
• Rawls’s concepts speak directly to leaders
• His principles fit well with a leader’s responsibilities
• Case Study 5.1 – Equal Justice for All – Jena Six
• In Jena, Mississippi (85% white population), high school students hung nooses around a “white tree” to tell black to stay away; this was dismissed as a prank
• Later, 6 black students jumped a white student after school; judges went back and forth on proper judges, initially charging them for aggravated murder as adults then reducing the sentences
• Historically black colleges, among others, came to Jena to protest the charges and make grounds for racial discrimination and that the noose prank should be charged as a hate crime; however, many citizens of Jena, both black and white, shared opinions on wrongdoing of both sets of students

 

Communitarianism: Shoulder Your Responsibilities and Seek the Common Good

• Proposed by Sociologist Amitai Etzioni and a group of 15 ethicists, social scientists and philosophers
• Shift the focus of citizens from individual rights to communal responsibilities
• Recognizes that citizenship has civil responsibilities in addition to a guarantee of individual rights
• Believe that the United States is in moral decline that can only be addressed by healthy communities
• Healthy or responsive communities are made up of the following:
• Wholeness of incorporating diversity
• A reasonable set of shared values
• Caring, trust, and teamwork
• Participation
• Affirmation
• Institutional arrangements for community maintenance
• The expectation is that citizens will make decisions based on the common good and not the benefits of any one individual
• Advantages
• Discourages selfish individualism
• Fosters dispersed leadership and ethical dialogue
• Encourages collaborative leadership strategies
• Promotes character development
• Disadvantages
• Evangelistic fervor of its proponents
• Promotes one set of values in a pluralistic society
• May erode individual rights
• Fails to resolve competing community standards

 

Altruism: Love Your Neighbor

• Argue that love of neighbor is the ultimate ethical standard
• Our actions should be designed to help others whatever the personal cost
• Society often functions better when people work to help others and build healthy social relationships
• Characteristics include compassion, hospitality, empathy, and generosity (reflect concern for others)
• Leaders must be focused on others if they are to succeed
• Followers prefer altruistic leaders and often follow their example
• Organizational Altruistic Behaviors
• Directed to benefit individuals
• Directed to benefit groups
• Directed to benefit the organization
• Directed to benefit society
• Advantages
• Ancient yet contemporary
• Important to society and leaders
• Powerful and inspiring
• Disadvantages
• Failure to many who profess to love their neighbor to act as if they do
• Many different, sometimes conflicting forms
• Hard to know how to help someone all the time

 

Ethical Pluralism

• Often you’ll need to combine perspectives in order to resolve an ethical problem
• Case Study 5.2 – Battle Over the Cervical Cancer Vaccine
• Merck released Gardasil, an HPV vaccine that prevented most infections caused by the most common strains; Glaxo released Ceravix, too.
• Many states made mandatory and/or free vaccinations for young girls
• Yet, costs of the treatment, gender discrimination, and economic value of access to the treatment are arguments still made against use of the vaccine
• Case Study 5.3 – Caring One Patient at a Time
• Dr. Paul Farmer is a Harvard medical School graduate who spends his time and fame in Haiti serving poverty-stricken individuals with severe cases like meningitis & gangrene
• He also travels throughout the country, speaking with patients and bringing them American goods; his Parterns in Health public health system has grown and, in effect, reduced infant mortality and HIV contraction through birth
• He practices a holistic approach to cures, where education, employment, and personal consideration (i.e. his travels to individuals’ homes) are significant to improving health

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